The Supply and Quality of Feeds used by Small-to-Medium Scale Broiler Farmers in Tanzania

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the supply and quality of feeds to small-to-medium (SM)-scale broiler farmers in the Morogoro, Pwani, and Dar es Salaam regions of Tanzania. A total of 108 SM-scale farmers from the three regions were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Results indicated that broiler chicken farming is dominated by women (>58.3%) in that age-bracket 40 to 59 years. Most were involved in other income generating activities, including mixed farming and formal employment. The most common challenges to SM-scale broiler production were listed as the high feed costs, diseases and marketing the birds. The average flock size per batch was largest in Dar es Salaam (551.1±70.4) and smallest in Pwani (430.5±3.2), with the number of batches per producer per annum ranging between 6.6±3.2 (Morogoro) and 9.8±6.5 (Dar es Salaam). Feeds were mainly bought from retail shops. The most commonly used feed ingredients by farmers were soybean, maize bran, rice, cotton, fish, di-calcium phosphate (DCP), and premixes and were mainly brought from retail shops. Approximately half of the respondents were satisfied with feed quality, a few (<5.7%) were very satisfied with the remainder either dissatisfied or undecided. Birds were sold as live or dressed carcasses, with major outlets reported to be farm gates, restaurants, and supermarkets. Most farmers sold their chickens between 5±0.6 and 6±0.8 weeks of age, weighed between 1.4±0.3 and 1.6±0.3 kg. The profit margin per bird was about TZS 1,089.9±493 in Morogoro, TZS 780±267 in Pwani and TZS 849.7±358 (US$ 1=TZS 2,298.20) in Dar es Salaam. The study findings reveal that poor broiler performance of broiler chickens in the SM-scale sector is mainly attributable to feed costs, price fluctuations and feed quality, among others.

Introduction

Chicken production makes a significant contribution to income generation and employment in lower-income households, as well as the provision of high-quality protein supply in Sub-Saharan Africa [1]–[4]. Raising broiler chickens is probably the best choice in terms of income and protein supply, as they are fast-growing with a short production cycle and are kept for meat only [5], [6]. With increased land-use pressure in urban and peri-urban areas of most African countries, broiler farming has become a favored agricultural pursuit as its production does not require much land [7], [8]. The high population growth in towns and cities of these countries has also ensured market access for broiler meat [8]. Broiler chickens are raised under an intensive management system based on high-quality feed for improved growth performance. In most developing countries, however, broiler performance is low, mainly due to the poor supply of feed, low quality of feed, and poor market access [6].

Feed quality can be affected by several factors, namely variation and deficiency in the nutrient composition of ingredients, the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF), and pathogenic fungal contamination that produces toxic compounds [9]. It is essential to balance all nutrients when formulating broiler diets based on the nutritional requirements recommended by breeders. However, when formulating diets that include ingredients that contain significant amounts of ANF, supplementation with exogenous enzymes to deactivate the ANF may increase nutrient availability and improve bird performance. Proper storage of feed ingredients and compounded feeds is essential to prevent fungal contamination that results in spoilage by molds, particularly in hot and humid regions [10]. Feed quality can be improved by various methods that include physical processes, such as proper drying and pelleting [11]. Pelleting and the use of exogenous enzymes in broiler feeds have been found to improve feed quality and broiler performance [12], but due to the poor supply of exogenous enzymes, lack of knowledge and costs, and the additional costs, many feed millers in Tanzania do not include exogenous enzymes in feeds. In Tanzania, broiler chickens are raised by the majority of small to medium (SM)-scale farmers, who have limited capital and lack modern management skills. Coupled with poor quality feeds and costs, broiler growth is slow, and farmers are being compelled to dispose of the birds at about 42 days when the birds attain a slaughter weight of about 1 kg to 1.5 kg. With better management and higher-quality diets, broiler chickens should be able to reach a market weight of 2 kg to 2.5 kg in 35 days [13]. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the feed supply and management constraints faced by SM-scale broiler chicken farmers in three regions of Tanzania.

Materials and Methods

Study Locations

The survey of SM-scale broiler chicken farmers was conducted in the urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro, Pwani, and Dar es Salaam regions. One district was purposefully selected from each of these three regions, namely, the districts of Morogoro, Kibaha, and Kinondoni, respectively. The locations of the study were selected based on their potential scope for broiler farming (Fig. 1). Morogoro is in the eastern part of the country at 6.8278° S, 37.6591° E, with a population of approximately 2,218,492. The region’s rainfall is in the range of 1000 mm to 1800 mm per annum, which is reliable for farming throughout the year. The temperature range is 18.6°C to 30°C. Morogoro region covers an area of 70,624 km².

Fig. 1. A map (right) showing study locations.

Pwani is located at 6.7667° S, 38.9167° E, covering an area of 32,547 km². It shares a border with the Tanga region to the north, Morogoro to the west and Lindi in the south. On the eastern side, the region borders with Dar es Salaam and the Indian Ocean. Pwani has an estimated population of 1,098,668. It has an average temperature range from 13°C to 30°C, humidity as high as 98%, and rainfall between 800 mm and 1200 mm per annum. The region has two rainy seasons, the first starting from October to December and the second from March to May.

Dar es Salaam is located at 6.7924° S, 39.2083° E on the Indian Ocean coastline. The region is bordered by Pwani in the north, west, and south, and the Indian Ocean to the east. It covers a total surface area of 1397 km² [7], which is equivalent to 0.15% of the entire mainland Tanzania. The region has an estimated population of 4,364,541. Due to its close proximity to the equator and the warm Indian Ocean, the city experiences tropical climatic conditions typified by hot and humid weather throughout much of the year. The annual rainfall in Dar es Salaam is approximately 1100 mm, with a heavy rainy season in April and May.

Study Design and Questionnaire Administration

A cross-sectional study was conducted in which a total of 108 SM-scale broiler farmers (36 from each of the three regions) were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Respondents were randomly selected from broiler SM-scale farmers in the study areas. The sample size was determined using the following formula as described by Guest et al. [14]:

where Z-Score is the measure of the precision of the sample of the population value, and StdDev is a measure of the variation of a set of data. The margin of error is a statistic expressing a random sampling error in the results of a survey. The sample size was deemed adequate to provide the information needed for this study based on the financial resources and time. District Agriculture and Livestock Extension officers assisted in the identification of the study locations and the respondents for the interview. The questionnaire was translated into Swahili and pre-tested before administration. Focus group discussions were used to clarify some responses and obtain the opinions of participants on the production challenges.

$$\begin{array}{r}Samplesize=\frac{(Z-Score)2\times Std.Dev\times (1-StdDev)}{\left(Marginoferror\right)2}\end{array}$$

Research Consent

The survey research was approved by the Human Ethics Committee of the University of New England under approval No. HE16-161.

Data Collection

Data were collected on the socio-economic circumstances of the participants, including standard demographic factors such as gender, age, and main source of income. Other information included the challenges faced by SM-scale broiler farmers, feeds, feeding management, and markets and marketing of birds.

Statistical Analysis

The information derived from the questionnaires was summarized and coded in an Excel spreadsheet in preparation for analysis using the frequency and descriptive procedure of SPSS-version 23 [15]. Simple frequency procedure was used where respondents had to give only one answer, while multiple response procedure was employed where respondents gave more than one answer.

Results

Socio-Economic Profile of the Respondents

The socio-economic information of the broiler farmers is presented in Fig. 2. The majority were females, with 58.3% in Morogoro, 63% in Pwani, and 80.6% in Dar es Salaam. Most were between 40 and 59 years of age. The main occupation of respondents in the study areas was poultry farming (63.1% in Pwani, 62% in Dar es Salaam, and 44.8% in Morogoro), and the majority of the farmers commenced raising broiler chickens from 4–8 years previously, followed by those who started from 9–13 years, with only a few starting in the past three years.

Fig. 2. Basic information about broiler farmers: (a) gender, (b) age distribution, (c) main occupation, and (d) the year when farmers started broiler chicken production.

Challenges Facing Broiler Farmers

The most frequently reported challenges to broiler chicken production in the study area were the high costs of feed and feed price fluctuations, diseases, and mortalities (Fig. 3). Other constraints included marketing, which was highly reported in Dar es Salaam (13.9%) and Pwani (12.4%). The availability and quality of day-old chicks (DOC), vaccines and drug costs, heat stress, high taxes, and poor extension services were additional constraints reported by a few.

Fig. 3. Production constraints facing SM-scale broiler farmers in the study regions (%).

Feeding and Water Supply to Broiler Chickens

Table I presents the responses to broiler feeding management. The results show the majority of respondents in Morogoro (56.5%), Pwani (64.7%), and Dar es Salaam (90.4%) sourced feed ingredients from retail shops. More than 50% provided feed and water to the birds ad libitum. About a third of the respondents in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam apportioned the feed into two lots, one given in the morning and the second in the evening. Most farmers using commercial feeds in Morogoro (65%), Pwani (70.6%), and 50% in Dar es Salaam indicated that they purchased feeds in batches, while the rest indicated that they bought feed in bulk.

Table I. Feed Management and Improvement by Farmers in the Study Areas (%)

Feed managementparameter	Morogoro n = 36	Pwanin = 36	Dar es Salaamn = 36
How feed is managed
Buy feed in bulk	20.6	12.3	14.7
Compound feed in bulk	13.6	17.1	35.3
Buy feed in batches	65.8	70.6	50
Perceived satisfaction with feed quality
Very satisfied	5.6	2.8	5.6
Satisfied	52.8	50	38.9
Could be better (not sure)	30.5	16.7	11.1
Not satisfied	11.1	30.5	44.4
Whether testing feeds prior to use
Yes	16.6	9.6	11.3
No	83.4	90.4	88.7
Whether supplementing
Yes	27.8	38.9	30.6
No	72.2	61.1	69.4
Use of feed formulation software:
Yes	52.8	4.8	14.3
No	47.2	95.2	85.7
Source of feed formulation
Self-made	29.2	36.3	31.0
Extension officer	29.2	9.1	33.3
From other farmers	33.3	36.4	9.0
Website	8.3	18.2	26.7
Feed storage
Yes	50	20	38.9
No	50	80	61.1
Feed storage time (months)
One (1)	94.7	83.3	57.1
Two (2)	5.3	16.7	42.9

About 50% of farmers in both Morogoro and Pwani and 38.9% in Dar es Salaam indicated that they were satisfied with the feed quality, few (<5.7%) were very satisfied, and the remainder were either not satisfied or indecisive. The results further show that most farmers in Morogoro (83.3%), Pwani (90.4%), and Dar es Salaam (88.7%) never conducted laboratory analysis prior to using feeds. For those who relied on formulated feeds (purchased), 72.2% in Morogoro, 61.1% in Pwani, and 69.4% in Dar es Salaam did not include additional supplements to the purchased feeds. Of those using homemade diets, 47.2% in Morogoro, 95.2% in Pwani, and 85.7% in Dar es Salaam relied on feed formulas obtained from other farmers (33.3% in Morogoro, 36.4% in Pwani, and 9.0% in Dar es Salaam) or extension officers, while some farmers used their own formula. Approximately 50% of farmers in Morogoro, 80% in Pwani, and 61.1% in Dar es Salaam said they did not store excess feeds for their birds. Of the farmers who stored feed, the majority of those in Morogoro (94.7%), Pwani (83.3%), and Dar es Salaam (57.1%) stored for one month, while the remainder stored feed for up to two months. The majority of respondents in Morogoro (56.5%), Pwani (64.7%), and Dar es Salaam (90.4%) sourced feed ingredients from retail shops (Fig. 4a). More than 50% provided feed and water to the birds ad libitum. About a third of the respondents in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam apportioned the feed into two lots, one given in the morning and the second in the evening.

Fig. 4. Source of ingredients (a), source of water (b), feeding regime (c), and watering frequencies (d) forbroiler chickens in the study area (%).

Feed Ingredients for Compounding Broiler Diets

The common ingredients used by farmers to formulate homemade broiler diets are shown in Fig. 5. Maize bran and sorghum are the main sources of energy, while the protein sources are soybean, cotton, fish, and blood meals. Salt and di-calcium phosphate (DCP) are the main mineral supplements, while premixes were also included by 44.5%, 54.5%, and 54.2% of the respondents in Morogoro, Pwani, and Dar es Salaam, respectively. A few farmers (<3%) used antibiotics in their feed, while 15%–23% added coccidiostats. A few farmers (<3%) included antibiotics in the feed, while between 15% and 23% of the farmers added coccidiostats when formulating the feed.

Fig. 5. Common ingredients used by SM-scale farmers in formulating broiler diets: (a) major ingredients and (b) micro ingredients.

E. Broiler chicken production data

The production parameters for broilers in this study are shown in Table II. The average flock size of birds across the study areas was 470.5, with the largest in Dar es Salaam (551±70.4), followed by Morogoro (453±60.8) and the smallest in Pwani (431±3.2). The mean number of batches of birds kept by farmers per annum ranged from 6.6±3.2 to 9.8±6.5, with birds being sold at 5 to 6 weeks of age, other than in Morogoro, where the sale age was slightly higher. The average weight of birds at sale ranged from 1.4 to 1.6 kg, with birds being sold at relatively younger ages in Dar es Salaam compared to the other two regions.

Table II. Broiler Chicken Production Targets Achieved in the Three Regions

Production parameter	Region	Mean	Standarddeviation
Number of	Morogoro	453	60.8
birds/batches	Pwani	431	3.2
	Dar es Salaam	551	70.4
	Mean	471	44.8
Batches per year	Morogoro	7.7	5.5
	Pwani	6.6	3.2
	Dar es Salaam	9.8	6.5
	Mean	8	5.1
Market age	Morogoro	6	0.8
(weeks)	Pwani	5.5	0.6
	Dar es Salaam	5	0.9
	Mean	5.5	0.8
Market weight	Morogoro	1.5	0.3
(kg)	Pwani	1.6	0.3
	Dar es Salaam	1.4	0.3
	Mean	1.5	0.3

F. Sale of chickens and record keeping

Most of the farmers in Morogoro (84.8%) kept records, followed by Dar es Salaam (66.7%) and Pwani (41.7%) (Fig. 6a). Most farmers in Pwani (81.3%) and Dar es Salaam (86.1%) sold their broiler chickens as live birds, while 58.3% in Morogoro sold their birds both live and as dressed carcasses (Table III). About 80% of farmers in Pwani and 55.6% in Dar es Salaam said they sold their birds at the farm gate, while 49.1% of those in Morogoro used middlemen. A few sold to restaurants, markets, and supermarkets. The selling price of live birds was slightly higher in Morogoro than in Pwani, with Dar es Salaam even less, while processed carcasses were only sold in Morogoro at TZS 6233±424. The estimated average profit margin per bird was TZS 906.50.

Fig. 6. Sales of live and slaughtered chickens in the three study regions: (a) whether the farmer keeps record, (b) forms of products sold, and (c) main outlets of chickens.

Table III. Sales of the Chickens in the Three Regions

Item	Region	n	Mean price (TZS)	Std. Dev
Live birds	Morogoro	36	5,944.4	410.2
	Pwani	36	5,805.6	364.1
	Dar es Salaam	36	5,466.7	216.5
	Mean	36	5,738.9	330.3
Processed carcass	Morogoro	22	6,233.6	424.9
	Pwani
	Dar es Salaam
	Mean		6,233.6	424.9
Profit margin/bird	Morogoro	36	1,089.9	492.9
	Pwani	36	780	266.7
	Dar es Salaam	36	849.7	357.6
	Mean		906.5	372.4

Discussion

Demographic Information of Broiler Chicken Farmers

Most of the farmers interviewed had started raising broiler chickens in the past eight years, but a few had started over thirteen years before this study, indicating that broiler chicken farming has become a well-established business with the potential to provide household income and employment despite the challenges [16]. This would indicate that the Tanzanian chicken industry has some experienced farmers and is gradually developing, with more entering the industry in more recent years. The fact that most participants in the survey were between the ages of 40 and 49 may imply that most began broiler farming in their thirties. These results are similar to those of Badubi et al. [5], who found that the majority of SM-scale broiler chicken producers in Botswana were between 40 and 50 years of age. This age range may imply that the majority, whether married or widowed, have their own land or homestead on which they can establish the enterprise.

In this survey, the number of female broiler farmers exceeded the number of males in all regions, corroborating the findings of Vincent et al. [17] and Keambou et al. [18]. Previous studies have noted that poultry production is commonly regarded as a source of empowerment for women in most developing countries [1], [3], [4]. Further, in many African societies, women can decide to sell or consume chicken meat and eggs without the need to formally negotiate with their husbands [19]. This suggests that women have full authority over chicken projects at the domestic level, and several projects to support women’s development have been initiated based on the potential of poultry farming for regular income generation.

Respondents indicated that they did not rely solely on broiler chicken farming and engaged in other forms of income generation. Many were also involved in mixed farming and assorted entrepreneurship, while some had employment in the private or public sectors. Traditionally, chicken farming provides a supplementary household income in Africa and is not considered the major livestock venture of the household. Hence, most SM-scale chicken farmers are simultaneously engaging in other farming and non-farming activities.

Constraints Facing Broiler Chicken Farming

The study found that the production of broiler chickens was hampered by several constraints, which included poor feed supply, feed price fluctuations, market accessibility, diseases, poor extension services, inadequacy of supply and low-quality DOCs, heat stress, and high taxation. These constraints have all previously been linked to the low productivity of exotic chickens in developing countries [5], [6], [10], [20].

Although poor supply and quality of feed were reported to be among the main constraints in this study, the proportion of responses reported in this study was low, probably because farmers did not analyze the quality of feed supplied to their birds. Similarly, the ingredients that are used for compounding feed are rarely tested for quality prior to feed formulation, and most of them vary in nutritional composition due to seasonal variations and the presence of anti-nutrients [9], [21]. Most ingredients of plant origin contain ANF. These ANFs lead to poor nutrient digestibility and a related reduction in poultry performance. There is evidence that the application of hydrothermal processes such as pelleting, extrusion, and roasting can reduce the ANF and the microbial load of feeds [22]. Careless storing of poultry feed and ingredients in stores can reduce feed quality through contamination by toxins producing molds. A previous study on poultry feeds in Morogoro, Tanzania, found that broiler diets are highly (91%) contaminated with aflatoxin, which decreases productivity and may serve as a health risk to human beings [10].

High feed costs and price fluctuations are probably the most impactful impediments in commercial broiler chicken production since feed accounts for about 65%–70% of production costs [12]. This suggests that when formulating diets, both the composition of nutrients and the cost of ingredients need to be balanced in order to produce a diet that is less expensive but still meets the nutritional requirements of the birds. The high cost of ingredients such as maize may be due to increased competition with the human and bioethanol industries [23].

Poor market access for finished birds and processed meat products, as reported in this study, causes uncertainty among farmers as to whether they will be able to sell at the end of the growth period, which motivates the limiting to batch sizes. Generally, the broiler market is dominated by a few large-scale broiler producers, who control much of the value chain due to economy of scale and establish monopoly and determine the price of products. Small-to-medium-scale farmers have no influence on the price at which they can sell their birds. Furthermore, when SM-scale farmers sell their birds to restaurants and supermarkets, they sell them at lower prices and often on credit. This situation negatively affects SM-scale broiler farming and has an impact on their profit margin. A similar finding was recorded in a previous study [7], which noted that large integrated agricultural firms in Dar es Salaam supplied the SM-scale sector with essential inputs such as chicks and feed. The author further explained that the companies controlled the cost and availability of these inputs and generally exerted a negative impact on the profitability of SM-scale farmers. These results also concur with the findings of a study in Botswana, where small-scale broiler producers were forced to sell carcasses at exceptionally low prices to chain stores owned by large-scale farmers [21]. Since large-scale farmers are more in control of the broiler chicken market in the study areas, the sample SM-scale farmers were struggling to sustain their business.

Most farmers in the study area rely on ward extension officers to obtain knowledge and advice on livestock management, but some reported that they did not have access to these extension services. These observations are similar to those of Olaniyan and Camara [16], who also found that about 80% of chicken farmers in the Gambia did not receive regular extension services. Similar results were noted in Rwanda [6], namely, that 65% of broiler farmers did not receive extension services. Inadequate extension services may lead to lower productivity in broiler chickens due to a lack of advisory services.

The shortage and poor quality of DOCs that were reported by farmers in this study could be due to insufficient hatcheries. Since most hatcheries are based in Dar es Salaam and Arusha, it has been reported that transporting DOCs to farmers who live far from the hatcheries leads to higher stress and mortality levels. The study regions are in the country’s extremely high temperatures and humidity zone. In the event that houses are not provided with sufficient ventilation, birds suffer from heat stress. This may be another reason for the mortality of DOCs and the poor performance of broilers in this study. As reported in this study, all East African country’s taxes on agricultural inputs are heavy. Nevertheless, talks have been held to call on the respective governments to reduce or stop all taxes on agricultural inputs in order to encourage sustainable agricultural production among smallholder farmers [24], [25].

Feed and Feeding Management

Most farmers in this study preferred commercial diets for their chickens because compounding diets require the purchase of ingredients that are not readily available locally. Those who preferred to use homemade diets sourced their ingredients from local retail shops. This finding is consistent with the findings of the Rwandan study, in which it was established that 92% of broiler farmers in Rwanda supplied their chickens with commercial feed [6].

The main ingredients used by broiler farmers to compound homemade diets were maize bran, sorghum, soybean, cotton, fish, and blood meals, while micro ingredients were salt, DCP, and premixes. Very similar ingredients are used in Rwanda for compounding broiler diets, but most must be imported [6]. The climate in the study regions, especially Dar es Salaam and Pwani, is not conducive for the production of most of the major ingredients used in compounding diets and affects the price.

The study farmers offered a variety of responses on their perception of the quality of the feed they provide to their birds. Some stated they were satisfied, while others were not, and the remainder were uncertain. These variations could be attributed to several factors, such as a lack of knowledge about chicken nutrition and management and not keeping farm records. Poor-quality feed could be an important factor in the poor production performance of birds, measuring only 1.4 to 1.6 kg after 6 weeks. Since most study farmers acknowledged that they do not test feed quality prior to use, it is difficult to evaluate the effect of feed quality on the performance of the birds. There have been limited studies in Tanzania aimed at improving poultry feed quality; however, research by Mutayoba et al. [9] found that there was a big variation in the nutritional composition of feed ingredients in the country, which may contribute to the generally poor quality of feed. The study farmers, thus, believed that the compounded feeds had a suitable standard, and if, for some reason, a feed did not meet their expectations, they normally switched to an alternative supplier. Generally, the quality of the feed produced in the country is not guaranteed due to the lack of law enforcement, quality control, and feeding standards [26]. The majority of commercial feed companies in the country do not provide nutritional composition on the labels of the feeds that they produce.

Production parameters on broiler chicken farms

Broiler chicken farmers in Dar es Salaam kept relatively larger flocks (551.1±70.4) than those in Morogoro (453±60.8) and Pwani (430.5±3.2). The average flock size of birds in Dar es Salaam was slightly larger than those previously reported in Rwanda by Mbuza et al. [6], which was less than 500 birds per batch but like those in Morogoro and Pwani. In Botswana, Badubi et al. [5] observed farmers raising about 640 birds per batch. In general, these flock sizes are still too small for a commercial broiler farm to make a significant profit. The majority of broiler farmers surveyed in this study said they kept from six to nine batches of flocks per annum. This exceeds the number observed in Botswana by Badubi et al. [5], where farmers kept about 4–4.5 batches of broilers per year. The mean number of batches of flocks reported in this study reflects the number of birds sold per annum and indicates the limitations in terms of capital and markets; the more birds raised and sold annually, the higher the farmer’s profit [8].

In this study, the live weight of broiler chickens ranged from 1.4±0.3 kg to 1.6±0.3 kg at five to six weeks. These weights are lower than those recorded by Badubi et al. [5] and Mutayoba et al. [9], who reported weights of 1.79 kg and 1.98 kg, respectively. Selling broiler chickens at the age of five to six weeks might be more profitable than selling at the age of 8.6 weeks, depending on the production costs. However, the current growth performance of broiler chickens raised by SM-scale farmers in Tanzania and neighboring countries is far lower than the recommendations for modern broiler breeds, which are around 2 kg for finished birds at 35 days [13], [27]. The difference between the performance of broiler chickens in the current study and the recommendation measurements could be attributed to several reasons, including poor feed quality and the high costs of ingredients.

Sale of birds and record-keeping

Most study farmers sold broilers live, while a few sold both older live birds and dressed carcasses. The majority of farmers sold their birds at farm gate markets, while some sold birds and carcasses through vendors or middlemen, and a few supplied supermarkets and hotels. The current results are somewhat related to those reported in Rwanda [6], who analyzed different sales points for broiler chickens, including farm gates, the marketplace, and contract sales.

Generally, the broiler retail prices in this study, ranging from TZS 5,500.00 to 6,000.00, are extremely low in comparison with the price of local chickens, which is very high despite the minimal management costs. Previous research has revealed that the price of a local chicken in Tanzania ranged from TZS 9,000.00 to 17,000.00 [3], indicating that SM-scale broiler farmers are making a minimal profit from their sales. The profit margins realized by the broiler producers in this study ranged from TZS 780.00 to TZS 1,100.00, which is very small in relation to their production costs. This may be due to the market demand for broiler chickens in Tanzania, as most local consumers have a strong preference for indigenous chicken meat [28]. Broiler chickens are mainly sold in supermarkets, some restaurants, and hotels for preparation or sale to tourists and expatriates, a situation similar to other parts of Africa [21].

Conclusion

In this study, the performance of broiler chickens raised by SM-scale farmers was below the recommended standards. Birds aged five to six weeks were sold, having only reached a 1.6 kg live weight and producing a profit of TZS 1,100.00 per bird. The inadequate supply, poor quality, and high costs of feed, together with diseases, which ultimately reduce bird performance, were the major challenges faced by SM-scale broiler producers. Agricultural authorities need to ensure that quality feeds are produced in the feed mills. Further research into strategies to reduce feed costs and improve feed quality is essential to increasing bird performance. It is also recommended that SM-scale broiler producers should be encouraged to form associations and obtain support from the government and other institutions.